





" "^^ .c,"^ 







'0^«^- 



r* A 





>' ... ^'^. "" A*^ .0«0. •^^ .A 





-%. 







^^ ' o • * 






WAR BREAD 



fs)^ 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

mw YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOITRNK 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



^7-. 



C^' 



WAR BREAD 



BY 
ALONZO ENGLEBERT TAYLOR 

Professor of Physiological Chemistry, University 

of Pa, Member of the United States Food 

Administration and of the War Trade 

Board, Washington 



^m flnrk 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1918 

AU rights reserved 



A+' 






COPTBI«HT, 1918 

By the MACMITiT/AN COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped. Published, May, 1918 



m 15 1918 
©C;.A497305 



DEDICATED TO 
HERBERT CLARK HOOVER 

IN THE HOPE THAT IT MAY AID HIS 

FELLOW CITIZENS TO 

SUPPORT HIM 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Our Duty 7 

What the Allies Need .... 16 

What We Possess 28 

Why We Are Limited in Wheat . 40 

Food Value of the Different 

Grains 50 

Ways of Stretching Wheat . . 62 

Waste in Wheat 93 



WAR BREAD 

OUR DUTY 

TT is my purpose to present briefly 
-*- and in untechnical language a state- 
ment of the wheat problem that is now 
confronting the people of the United 
States. I have used the title War 
Bread because with us every problem 
in cereals ultimately ends in the ques- 
tion of bread. The bread-grains are 
wheat and rye. If we are short of 
bread-grains, we must modify our 
bread. If we are very short of bread- 
grains, we must substitute other cereals 
for bread. Every bread-eating people 
clings to bread as long as possible, an 
expression of psychology rather than 



8 WAR BREAD 

of physiology. The war problem of 
bread is also entangled in factors of 
industry and trade that demand and 
deserve careful consideration. 

War bread did not come to our Al- 
lies as one of their earliest burdens in 
the war. It comes to us with the first 
of our war obligations. The proper 
definition of our relations to our Allies 
states that we will share with them 
every responsibility, over-load, sac- 
rifice, saving and loss, in order that 
with them we may justly share in the 
cultural, geographical, and govern- 
mental freedom that success of the al- 
lied armies will bring. Prior to our 
entrance into the war, the allied peo- 
ples had suffered losses in resources 
and in men of which our people have 
no conception. No matter what sacri- 
fices and losses the future may bring, 
it is not possible that our total relin- 
quishments at the end of the war, in 



WAR BREAD 9 

proportion to our resources and popu- 
lation, can equal those of the allied 
peoples. When a few brave Ameri- 
cans are killed in a trench sortie in 
France this tragedy is announced in 
headlines in our daily papers. In the 
papers of the Allies are published once 
a month statements of monthly casual- 
ties that run into tens of thousands. 
This comparison illustrates our re- 
spective losses in the war to date. It 
is from every point of view the impera- 
tive duty, and ought to be esteemed the 
privilege, of the American people to 
assume our full share of the war bur- 
den. 

Our Government, our military and 
naval forces and our industries are ef- 
fectively active in participation in the 
war, but our people have only com- 
menced individual participation in war 
work of serious import. The first real 
war work devolving upon the Amer- 



10 WAR BREAD 

ican people as a whole lies in the 
adaptation of our mode of living to 
meet the food situation of the al- 
lied peoples. Regarding ourselves as 
united with our Allies in every point 
of effort, sacrifice, saving and loss, our 
total foodstuffs ought to be at the least 
equally divided. We must regard the 
stretch of water between the United 
Kingdom and France as a fiction, the 
range of mountains between Italy and 
France as non-existent, and the ex- 
panse of ocean between North Amer- 
ica and Europe as but an incident in 
transportation. We must regard all 
of our foodstuffs as pooled. The very 
least that ought to be done is to assure 
to each man, woman and child in the 
United Kingdom, France and Italy the 
per capita portion that would accrue 
to each of the 235,000,000 individuals 
comprised in our combined popula- 
tions if all the foodstuffs of the United 



WAR BREAD 11 

Kingdom, France, Italy, Canada and 
the United States were pooled and 
divided pro rata. Any lack would 
then be quantitative, a division to 
each person share and share. But 
more than this, in consideration of the 
fact that the Allies are carrying bur- 
dens so much larger than ours, par- 
ticularly burdens applied to the house- 
hold, if there be ever a choice 
presented or enforced by circum- 
stances between them and us, we 
ought to choose the harder part. If 
there be alternative between greater 
or lesser labour in the preparation of 
food, greater or lesser convenience in 
household management, higher or 
lower satisfaction in the diet, richer or 
poorer maintenance of the normal ra- 
tion in quality or articles, we should 
make it our privilege to assume the 
worst part and to bestow upon them the 
best part. 



12 WAR BREAD 

This resolves itself into different 
duties with the two sexes. Applied 
to men, it is the duty of men in Amer- 
ica to accept without complaint such 
alterations in our diet as will enable 
the men of the United Kingdom, 
France and Italy to have a diet as 
nearly as possible adapted to their 
needs, tastes and customs. Applied 
to women, it is the duty of women in 
America to assume additional burdens 
in the household in the preparation of 
food and to accept changes in the ac- 
customed diet, in order that the women 
of the United Kingdom, France and 
Italy, may have their burdens of 
household management reduced to the 
lowest possible level. American men 
must visualize what the men of the Al- 
lies have been through and what they 
are enduring now. With this must be 
contrasted what we have been through 
and what we are enduring now. The 



WAR BREAD 13 

women of America must visualize 
what the women of the Allies have 
been through and what they are endur- 
ing now, and compare this with what 
our women have been through and are 
enduring now. From these compari- 
sons, the duties of the men and women 
of America will become glorified into 
privilege. 

It is the purpose of the following 
pages to make clear just what must be 
accomplished in order that we may 
give to every member of the allied 
peoples his full share in our pooled 
foodstuffs, at the lowest comparable 
cost and with the least labour. It is 
not to be inferred that the food prob- 
lem concerns bread alone. We must 
consume less of sugar, meats and fats 
than has been our custom, in order to 
supply the allied peoples with amounts 
that shall enable them to raise their re- 
duced rations to a plane less below 



14 WAR BREAD 

their normal. The bread problem is 
however the most pressing. 

Difficulties in transportation will 
make it impossible for the Allies to 
secure during the coming months the 
normal quantities of food. There is 
no prospect of a reduction of Ameri- 
can foodstuffs. Our efforts must be to 
hold the quantity of the foodstuffs of 
the Allies to the highest point per- 
mitted by transportation facilities, and 
to make their diet in the qualitative 
sense as close to the normal as possible. 
In order to do this, we do not need to 
reduce our diet in quantity, but it is 
imperative that it be modified, and 
these modifications apply to cereals 
more than to any other articles in our 
diet. We need not fear that our diet, 
as a people, is endangered; our fixed 
habits alone are endangered. Only 
one fourth of the human diet is con- 



WAR BREAD 15 

cemed with indispensables, three 
fourths are substitutables, our food 
problem is concerned with the latter 
alone. Applied to particular comes- 
tibles rather than to physiological 
constituents, the diet is a mixture of 
essentials and nonessentials; of the 
former there are few, of the latter 
many. To continue this year the diet 
of custom amounts to adopting a pro- 
German diet. 



WHAT THE ALLIES NEED 

nPHE season of 1917 brought poor 
■*• crops to the allied nations in 
Europe. The yield in wheat, rye, bar- 
ley, com and rice for human consump- 
tion in the United Kingdom, France 
and Italy reached a total of only 10,- 
600,000 tons. This is less than half 
of the normal cereal consumption of 
these peoples. The crop failure was 
due to unfavourable weather, lack of 
labour, scarcity of fertilizer and de- 
pletion of work animals. When one 
considers that in France agriculture 
was carried on almost entirely by 
women, reduction in yield was not to 
be wondered at, even under favour- 
able climatic conditions. 

The people of the United Kingdom 

16 



WAR BREAD 17 

consume cereals to the extent of about 
one-third of their diet; the people of 
Italy to the extent of over 40 per cent. ; 
bread constitutes over half of the sub- 
sistence of the people of France. 
Crop failure endangered the most es- 
sential article of the diet. In order 
to secure the cereals required to main- 
tain their subsistence, our Allies 
needed to import from the United 
States, Argentine and India an amount 
of cereal equal to the home-grown 
grains. The amounts of wheat and 
rye desired from North America, 
where grain was first available, was 
about 7,000,000 tons, leaving 2,000,- 
000 million to come from the Argen- 
tine and 2,000,000 to come from 
India. To haul wheat from India 
to Italy is an economic run, but 
to haul wheat from the Plate to Eu- 
rope is a waste of tonnage compared 
with the haul from the United States. 



18 WAR BREAD 

In order to appreciate the position 
of the Allies, one must consider not 
only the quantity of cereals but also 
the methods of consumption. The in- 
habitants of the United Kingdom, 
France and Italy are essentially bread 
eating peoples. There is a small con- 
sumption of oatmeal and rice in the 
United Kingdom. Italy consumes 
considerable rice, which is there a 
staple dish. The people of Italy also 
consume a million and a half tons of 
com per annum in the state of polenta. 
In addition to the use of bread, wheat 
flour is used widely in Italy in the 
preparation of pastes. In France the 
cereals largely consumed are wheat 
and rye, and these almost exclusively 
in bread. Viewing the Allies as a 
whole, we may say that it was their 
normal practice to consume 90 per 
cent, of their cereals in wheat. 

Practically speaking all bread con- 



WAR BREAD 19 

sumed in the allied countries is baked 
in shops, home baking being almost 
unknown. Since forty per cent, of 
the food of the Allies is bread and this 
bread is baked in shops, it follows that 
only sixty per cent, of their food is 
prepared by the housekeepers. Since 
the women of the Allies are already 
overworked to a serious degree, it is 
of particular importance that this 40 
per cent, of ready-to-serve food should 
not be reduced, since this would result 
in additional household labour being 
imposed upon them. 

It is not possible to make bread on 
a commercial scale with less than 70 
per cent, of wheat and rye flour. 
These are the grains that contain glu- 
ten, which when mixed into dough and 
raised under the action of yeast yields 
a bread that can be transported, keeps 
well and meets all of the desiderata 
of a staple cereal food. It is, there- 



20 WAR BREAD 

fore, important that we should supply 
the Allies with wheat and rye, (to 
which may be added barley), to the 
extent of 75 per cent, of their total 
cereal needs, if they are to maintain 
their normal habits of bread consump- 
tion. They can use 25 per cent, of 
rice, oats or corn to make mixed bread 
with 75 per cent, of flour prepared 
from wheat, rye and barley in the pro- 
portions available to them. If, how- 
ever, the amount of rice, com or oats 
rises above 30 per cent., commercial 
baking of bread ceases to be possible, 
and these people will have to have 
breadless meals, and for these meals 
cereals in other states than bread must 
be served. Our allies accept com 
gladly for use in mixed-flour bread. 
That we have sent them relatively lit- 
tle this winter was due to the high 
water content of the corn of last year's 
crop and to the disorganization of 



WAR BREAD 21 

railway transportation during the 
winter months. Corn cannot be sent 
over during the spring months on ac- 
count of liability to germination. 

There is no mystical property in 
wheat or bread. The use of cereals in 
the form of bread is merely a matter 
of convenience, but this becomes of 
vital importance in the stress under 
which the women of the Allies are at 
present labouring. It ought, there- 
fore, to be the purpose of our people 
to yield to the Allies such amounts of 
wheat and rye as, added to their own, 
will enable them to have three-fourths 
of their total cereals in the state of 
bread-grains, in order that their ce- 
real consumption may occur, as in 
their normal lives, largely in the form 
of bread. If this is not done, then 
we compel them to serve boiled rice or 
hominy, oatmeal porridge, com meal 
mush or com pone instead of bread. 



22 WAR BREAD 

Apart from the use of polenta and 
risotto in Italy and the use of oatmeal 
and rice in England, these people do 
not understand the routine use of these 
cereals. They would have to devote 
additional labour to their preparation. 
If the 2,000 homes in a French vil- 
lage purchase their bread from one 
baker, this means that half of their 
food will be prepared by a few men in 
a single well-equipped bakery, with 
very little outlay of fuel. But if, in- 
stead of issuing the total cereal in the 
state of bread, only two-thirds is so is- 
sued, the result will be that in each of 
the 2,000 homes the cereal portion for 
one meal in the day will have to con- 
sist of cooked rice, oatmeal, corn 
mush or corn bread. This will re- 
quire at least half an hour of the time 
of the over-worked woman. It will 
require fuel, — with coal at $110.00 a 
ton. It will impose upon the mem- 



WAR BREAD 23 

bers of tliese suffering families the use 
of foods to which they are unaccus- 
tomed. We know that to use these 
cereals acceptably requires sugar, 
milk, butter or fruits, in excess of the 
amounts needed when bread is con- 
sumed. We have milk, sugar, butter 
and fruits in abundance. With the 
sugar rations of the Allies, the use of 
sugar with a breakfast cereal is out of 
the question. Their dairy stock is se- 
riously depleted; the ration of butter 
is very low; they lack fruits. They 
would have to use the cereals plain, 
which we know by experience, would 
not be palatable. 

The use of rice, com and oatmeal 
would be just as healthful for the Al- 
lies as the use of bread composed of 
three-fourths bread-grains. It is not 
a question of healthfulness. It is a 
question of work, habit and palat- 
ability. 



24 WAR BREAD 

From every point of view, it ought 
to be regarded as reasonable and nat- 
ural that Americans should wish to 
maintain the normal cereal intake of 
the Allies in the form of bread. The 
bread with 25 per cent, of com or oats 
will not be a natural bread, but it will 
be a bread of good, nourishing quali- 
ties, if not of normal taste. It will 
enable them to maintain their cereal 
intakes in the normal proportions of 
their diets, without forcing upon them 
any additional labour in the prepar- 
ation of their food. The bake-shops 
of these countries have learned to 
make mixed breads. The traveller 
from America, recalling the splendid 
bread of France, will scarcely recog- 
nize French bread in the present 
product. But it is bread; it can be 
bought in convenient amounts, repre- 
sents the normal proportion in the diet, 
and as such is gratefully accepted, 



WAR BREAD 25 

since the people of France have ceased 
to be hypercritical of their bread. 
The bread is not merely a mixed 
bread; it is a bread of much higher 
extraction. Wheat is now milled to 
85 per cent, in France, and this flour 
forms the basis for the mixed-flour 
bread. Under these circumstances, 
commercial bakers have not found it 
possible to make bread of the texture 
for which French bread was noted. 
The bread is frequently soggy, it is apt 
to be heavy, and it is unquestionably 
less digestible than the normal French 
bread. It is not a normal bread in 
taste, due to the presence of other 
cereals; but it is, as stated, bread, and 
as such fills the extremely important 
role of bread in the diet. 

The same argument holds for the 
peoples of the United Kingdom and 
Italy, almost to the same extent as for 
France. They are not as dependent 



26 WAR BREAD 

upon bread as are the French, but as 
pastes can only be made from wheat 
flour the argument applies fully to 
Italy. In England, while the amount 
of bread is not as large, nevertheless, 
the dependency of the labouring 
classes upon bread has always been 
pronounced. We can eat breakfast 
cereals two meals in the day if neces- 
sary, the Allies need bread three meals 
each day. 

The bread ration has been recently 
reduced in all of the allied countries. 
Up to December, they had attempted 
to maintain the bread ration in normal 
quantity. Scarcity of tonnage, due to 
the ravages of the submarine, have 
finally made it necessary to reduce the 
bread ration. This has been done in 
all of the three countries. The pres- 
ent bread ration in France provides 
daily of mixed-flour bread the follow- 
ing amounts to the designated classes: 



WAR BREAD 27 

Children less than 3 years old . 3.5 oz. 
Children from 3 to 13 years. . 7.0 oz. 

Hard workers 13 to 60 14.0 oz. 

All others from 13 to 60 10.5 oz. 

Over 60 years of age 7.0 oz. 

This represents a material reduction in 
the total bread intake of the Allies. 
The reduction may prove to be as 
large as 25 per cent. Even with the 
great scarcity of tonnage, it is impera- 
tive to transport to the Allies the 
amounts of wheat necessary to pre- 
pare bread in the amounts required 
according to reduction in the ration. 
Whosoever wishes to aid the Germans 
this summer will eat bread three times 
a day; whosoever wishes to aid the 
Allies will give them bread three times 
a day. 



WHAT WE POSSESS 

/^ UR situation after the needs of the 
^^ allied nations for wheat during 
this year have been satisfied is easily- 
presented in rounded statistical form. 
Subtracting from the wheat crop, 650,- 
000,000 bushels, the seed require- 
ments and the amounts that have been 
exported and are committed for export 
to the Allies, leaves for consumption in 
the United States about 400,000,000 
bushels, as against a normal of 500,- 
000,000. Our population is 105,- 
000,000 and we have also commit- 
ments for flour to Cuba, Panama, 
Mexico and Central America for the 
support of essential war industries that 
bring it up to at least 108,000,000. 
This corresponds to less than four 
bushels of wheat per capita per year. 

28 



WAR BREAD 29 

Extracted according to our present 
milling practice, this corresponds to 
about 162 pounds of flour for the year, 
or 13.5 pounds per month, per per- 
son. 

The voluntary conservation meas- 
ures of the United States Food Ad- 
ministration, introduced in the fall of 
1917, if realized, would enable us to 
fulfill our obligations to our Allies 
and carry our wheat consumption 
through the year, at the rate of not 
over a half pound of flour per day. 
The full hopes of the Food Adminis- 
tration as to the total results of volun- 
tary conservation have not been real- 
ized. There is evidence that while 
perhaps 30 per cent, of our popula- 
tion have conserved wheat, increased 
consumption has occurred with the 
remainder, partly as an expression of 
increased need due to heavier work, 
since wheat flour was almost the 



30 WAR BREAD 

cheapest food; and partly as the re- 
sult of increased wage, which in any 
people and under all circumstances, 
leads for a time to increased food con- 
sumption. It is not possible in a defi- 
nite manner to determine what the con- 
sumption has been to date and what is 
left for the balance of the year until 
the new crop comes in. In an approx- 
imate manner, however, this can be 
stated, and it must be stated in such a 
way as to present a safe estimate from 
the standpoint of conservation. 

We will accept as the figure for the 
normal consumption of flour 216 
pounds per capita per year, 18 lbs. 
per month. I assume that during the 
first half of the crop year, consump- 
tion has occurred at this rate, corre- 
sponding to 108 pounds. Available 
to each person throughout the year 
were 162 pounds. Subtracting 108 
from 162 pounds leaves 54 pounds, 



WAR BREAD 31 

which represents approximately the 
amount of flour available for each 
person in the United States until the 
new flour enters the market. This 
corresponds to nine pounds per 
month, or one-half of the normal con- 
sumption. The rye flour is nearly 
exhausted. There is a certain pro- 
duction of barley flour, but for practi- 
cal purposes we must accept it as cor- 
rect to say that nine pounds of wheat 
flour per month represents during the 
present summer the maximum amount 
of flour available to each person in the 
United States. It may be less. 

Our normal total cereal consump- 
tion was somewhere in the neighbour- 
hood of 22 pounds per month, of 
which approximately eighteen pounds 
was in the form of wheat flour, leaving 
only four pounds as representing the 
consumption of non-wheat cereals. 
In the south, large numbers of people 



32 WAR BREAD 

consume less than ten pounds of wheat 
flour per month with twelve pounds of 
com. We have many people in the 
north who consume practically no 
other cereal than wheat flour. Now, 
to achieve the task set before us, that 
is to stretch the consumption of wheat 
flour so that it will last until the new 
crop, each person must limit his con- 
sumption to at least nine pounds per 
month, and if the total cereal intake is 
to be maintained at twenty-two pounds, 
this means the consumption of non- 
wheat cereals must rise to thirteen 
pounds. 

Now in order to attain a certain sav- 
ing, it is for reasons of trade and in- 
dustry, as well as for reasons of psy- 
chology, demonstrated by human ex- 
perience that one must aim at a higher 
retrenchment than for the minimal fig- 
ure set for accomplishment. For the 
poorer classes in our cities reduction 



WAR BREAD 33 

in flour consumption is difficult. The 
present program of the Food Adminis- 
tration runs to the effect that there 
shall be two wheatless days per week 
and one wheatless meal each day. In 
other words, of the twenty-one meals, 
eleven are to be wheatless and ten are 
to contain wheat. A certain amount 
of flour must be used in the kitchen in 
the preparation of sauces and gravies. 
The standard bread is a preparation of 
seventy-five parts of wheat flour and 
twenty-five parts of admixing cereals. 
For some time the Food Adminis- 
tration has had in operation a fifty- 
fifty rule, that one could purchase 
wheat flour only by purchasing an 
equal weight of other cereal, indicat- 
ing the wish of the authorities that we 
should consume non-wheat cereals in 
amounts equal to wheat flour. To 
play safe, we should do more than this. 
A safe rule for the average family 



34 WAR BREAD 

would be to limit the wheat flour con- 
sumed in all forms to six pounds per 
person per month. 

The physical article bread has a 
psychological value in the diet. To 
the people of means, bread eating is 
largely a habit, as is well illustrated in 
the munching of bread in public eat- 
ing places while waiting for the food 
that has been ordered to be served. 
But with the working classes bread has 
a value that can be compared to the 
arch of the keystone, and it cannot 
safely be reduced below a certain 
amount. This bread may be mixed- 
flour bread, whole-wheat bread or 
white bread ; but it must be bread and 
it cannot be replaced by cooked 
cereals. The figure for the amount 
of bread to be regarded as indis- 
pensable depends upon custom, view- 
point and financial means. Leaving 
aside the first two as outside the 



WAR BREAD 35 

domain of quantitative evaluation, the 
relation of the purchasing power of 
a class to its bread needs may be ex- 
pressed in the statement that the more 
limited the means the more important 
the bread and the larger the amount 
demanded. Bread and potato are all 
that Germany can give to her working 
classes in anything like normal 
amounts; and therefore the public re- 
acts to any change in the bread ration 
with almost explosive violence. We 
have more meat, fats, sugar and veg- 
etables for our working classes than 
have Great Britain, France and Italy. 
Therefore, bread is more important to 
our Allies than it is to us. To our 
classes of means, including the so- 
called middle class, bread is largely a 
dispensable article of diet; to our 
working classes, bread is indispensa- 
ble. We are short of wheat. There- 
fore, our working classes and those 



36 WAR BREAD 

of low means should have more than 
their numerical share, the sedentary 
classes less. This is all the more true 
since wheat flour is one of the cheapest 
foods on the market, and it is therefore 
at this time the duty of people of 
means to forego wheat. Biscuit 
makers who for years have turned 
out little else than wheat crackers, are 
now producing excellent crackers of 
other cereals. 

Now, if our consumption of non- 
wheat cereals represents an average of 
four pounds per month per person 
and this is now to be raised to at least 
thirteen pounds per month per person, 
we must give a figure for the increased 
amounts of barley, rice, com and oats 
that must be consumed in order to 
maintain the total cereal intake. The 
previous consumption was 420,000,- 
000 pounds per month. This must 
rise to 1,365,000,000 pounds per 



WAR BREAD 37 

month. We have available for con- 
sumption in the shape of domestic rice 
85,000,000 pounds per month. Oat- 
meal and rolled oats are produced in 
our mills at the rate of about 135,000,- 
000 pounds per mounth. Com meal 
was produced at the rate of 600,000,- 
000 pounds per month, though this 
represents a normal inefficiency and 
not the potential output at all. The 
total of diese is, therefore, 820,000,- 
000 pounds per month as against the 
need of 1,365,000,000, leaving a de- 
ficit of 545,000,000 pounds of sup- 
plementary cereals per month. The 
amounts of barley, buckwheat, rye and 
other cereals remaining could not fur- 
nish over 200,000,000 pounds per 
month. To cover the deficit we must 
either import rice, produce more oat- 
meal and rolled oats, turn out more 
corn meal and hominy, or import 
wheat from Argentine or Australia, 



38 WAR BREAD 

If we have effected material conserva- 
tion in wheat, this will find expression 
in a diminished demand for supple- 
mentary cereals in certain sections of 
the country, and have the effect of 
lowering the figure for the amount of 
supplementary cereals required. 

The crux of the situation does not 
lie in the supply of com and oats, but 
in milling facilities and transporta- 
tion. The milling of com in this 
country is inefficiently done from the 
quantitative point of view, and is 
capable of large and immediate ex- 
pansion. Mills not primarily built 
for the milling of com can also be 
adapted to this end. With the amount 
of wheat at our disposal, our milling 
facilities are only partially employed, 
and although considerable reconstruc- 
tion and adaptation may be necessary, 
these are being accomplished and the 
substitutes are flowing freely to mar- 



WAR BREAD 39 

ket. Corn more than once saved the 
early settlers of New England from 
starvation, and was during the civil 
war the chief support of the southern 
people. 

In practical terms, therefore, our 
situation, when the needs of the Allies 
have been filled, may be stated to the 
effect that one-third of our cereals is 
in the state of wheat flour and two- 
thirds in the state of products of rice, 
oats, com and the other cereals; and 
since these substitution cereals cannot 
be combined in the form of bread, as 
the term is usually understood, our 
people will have bread for one-third 
of their meals and supplementary 
cereals, cooked or baked in one state 
or another, for two-thirds of the meals. 
This state of affairs must certainly en- 
dure until September; whether it will 
be necessary later, depends upon the 
crop of 1918 here and abroad. 



WHY WE ARE LIMITED IN 
WHEAT 

T^HE scarcity of wheat is directly the 
-*- result of crop failure, since the 
crop of 1917 was low. The crop of 
1916 was also low, but this was com- 
pensated for by the bumper crop of 
1915. It is unusual for crop failure 
to occur in three successive years, ex- 
cept as the expression of human fac- 
tors. Nevertheless, the past three 
years have each given a subnormal 
crop of cotton, and we must realize 
that the year of 1918 may bring the 
third successive low yield of wheat. 

Viewed broadly, our low produc- 
tion of bread-grains is the expression 
of our type of agriculture. It repre- 
sents our definition of yield in terms of 

40 



WAR BREAD 41 

men rather than in terms of acreage; 
and also the tendency of our agricul- 
tural processes to revolve about animal 
husbandry. On superficial contempla- 
tion, it seems strange that we should 
have approached the limit in our per 
capita production of bread-grains. 
As a matter of fact, the United States 
had ceased to be an exporter of bread- 
grains; we had been scarcely more 
than self-supporting; we were inevit- 
ably becoming an importer, relying 
upon Canada for a portion of our sup- 
plies. Of our total land surface of 
over 1,903,000,000 acres, about 900,- 
000,000 are at present defined as farm 
area, of which about 500,000,000 are 
improved, that is, under cultivation 
in the broad sense of the term. The 
largest acreage ever planted to bread- 
grains was in 1915, nearly 70,000,000 
acres, less than one-seventh of the im- 
proved land. 



42 WAR BREAD 

The prospective acreage in wheat, 
barley and rye for the year 1918 may 
be estimated to be in the neighbour- 
hood of 75,000,000 acres, and repre- 
sents, apparently, the maximum that 
can be obtained under present condi- 
tions of cultivation of the soil. This 
limitation is an expression partly of 
the operation of the law of diminishing 
returns as applied to the raising of the 
cereals themselves, partly the expres- 
sion of competition with other crops 
and with animal husbandry. There 
is a great deal of discussion of the 
planting of the marginal area, whether 
this be applied to acres in individual 
farms or to areas in the different 
zones. Of course, this could be ac- 
complished if the yield per acre could 
be maintained to the average. But 
this could be expected only if we pos- 
sessed abundant farm labour, ade- 
quate supplies of fertilizer and un- 



WAR BREAD 43 

limited implements. These we have 
not, and if we did possess them, we 
would not cultivate the marginal area. 
We would practise instead intensive 
cultivation, and upon a smaller acre- 
age devoted to bread-grains, raise 
double the yield per acre that is at- 
tained with the present practices. 

There are four main areas devoted 
to the raising of bread-grains. The 
first is east of the Mississippi, running 
across the central section, as far north 
as southern Michigan and New York. 
This area produces winter wheat 
largely, is reliable in yield, and from 
the purely rotation point of view, 
capable of considerable expansion in 
acreage. The second area is the 
southwestern belt, including Missouri, 
southern Nebraska, Kansas, Okla- 
homa and the contiguous areas of 
Texas and Colorado. This is also 
a winter wheat belt, but exposed to 



44 WAR BREAD 

unfavourable climatic conditions, 
winter killing and drouth being fre- 
quent. The third area is the north- 
western spring wheat belt, includ- 
ing the country from the Mississippi 
to the Rocky Mountains, a direct con- 
tinuation of the Canadian spring 
wheat belt. This is also a section of 
unfortunate climatic conditions; the 
seeding is often so greatly delayed by 
late spring that the farmer has diffi- 
culties in preparing his soil and the 
crop barely time to mature before 
frost, and the area is also liable to 
excess or deficiency in rainfall. The 
last area is the Pacific belt, including 
in this all the states west of the Rocky 
Mountain Divide. California was 
once a prolific producer of wheat, but 
exhausted her soil, through repeated 
cultivation without rotation. The 
northern Pacific states yield richly in 
the bread-grains, and are relatively 



WAR BREAD 45 

free of untoward climatic influences. 
It is an unfortunate fact that those 
areas that have statistically the best 
climatic influences have the least pos- 
sibility of expansion. One must not 
make an estimate of acreage without at 
the same time having before one the 
figures of planting and of harvesting, 
with the records of abandonment. 

Following upon a governmental sur- 
vey, the acreage of winter wheat rec- 
ommended in the fall year of 1917 
was over 47,000,000 acres. Owing to 
drouth in the southwest, the seeding 
according to this recommendation was 
not fully accomplished, but over 42,- 
000,000 were secured. The condi- 
tion of the wheat on the first of Decem- 
ber was below eighty per cent., the 
lowest in years. During the winter 
the condition has been considerably 
improved, owing to protection by an 
abundance of snow. What the future 



46 WAR BREAD 

holds in rainfall, drouth, frost or para- 
sitic diseases cannot be foreseen. 
The acreage of spring wheat that will 
probably be attained may be estimated 
conservatively at 20,000,000. If from 
this combined acreage, plus rye and 
barley, we secure a yield that is 
large as an expression of favourable 
climatic conditions, with a low ratio 
for abandonment and a high figure 
for yield per acre, the bread-grain 
crop of 1916 may represent 1,100,- 
000,000 bushels. On the other hand, 
with unfavourable conditions in tem- 
perature, rainfall or parasitic dis- 
eases, the yield may fall as low as 
700,000,000 bushels, without exceed- 
ing the common measure of unfavour- 
able results in the past. If we should 
secure a billion bushels, this would 
probably mean a large crop of spring 
wheat for Canada, where it is hoped 



WAR BREAD 47 

15,000,000 acres will be planted, and 
under these circumstances we and our 
Allies would have little concern over 
bread-grains after the first of Septem- 
ber. If, however, we secure a yield 
as low as 700,000,000 bushels, this 
would probably mean also a low 
spring wheat yield in Canada, and we 
and our Allies would face after the 
first of September a continuation of 
the same situation of scarcity and 
stringency that now confronts us. It 
is imperative that we place in opera- 
tion measures of conservation that will 
continue over into the coming year 
and they must be designed to that end, 
since that is the only procedure of 
safety. With the continuation of the 
war into another year, that is, with the 
necessity of planting a war crop for 
the year 1919, we would face the same 
situation as this year, except that 



48 WAR BREAD 

labour would be still scarcer, machin- 
ery more depleted and fertilizer still 
less available. 

The only possible deviation from 
the program as set forth would be a 
violent dislocation of agriculture, with 
heavy reduction in the planting of all 
feed crops, especially com and oats, 
attended by consequent reduction in 
the number of domesticated animals. 
This, which has already been made 
necessary in every European country 
at war, has not yet become necessary 
here. If the price of wheat were to 
be fixed very high, say at four dollars 
per bushel, wheat would be planted to 
the disastrous neglect of other crops 
and of domesticated animals. Wheat 
would be secured, but the state would 
have to pay for bread for a large sec- 
tion of the people. If we have wheat 
failure in 1918, the sole escape from 
violent dislocation of agricultural 



WAR BREAD 49 

practices in 1919 would lie in the im- 
portation of bread-grains from India, 
Argentine and Australia, made possi- 
ble by the conquest of ship-building 
and depth-bombing over the opera- 
tions of the submarine. Our agricul- 
ture, like our diet, operates with or 
against the submarine. 



FOOD VALUE OF THE 
DIFFERENT GRAINS 

THE substitution of oats, com, rice 
and other cereals for bread-grains 
rests upon sound physiological consid- 
eration. Under bread-grains, we in- 
clude in the order of their importance 
from the standpoint of bread-making, 
wheat and rye. Barley, com, oats, 
and rice are not technically regarded 
as bread-grains at all, because yeast- 
leavened bread cannot be prepared 
from them. On analysis, these grains 
are found to be similar in composi- 
tion, whether analysed whole or after 
being processed into flour. With dif- 
ferent varieties and in diff'erent sea- 
sons, they contain in different coun- 
tries from eight to twelve per cent, of 
50 



WAR BREAD 51 

protein, with the exception of rice that 
may be as low as six per cent., and 
oats that may run over fifteen. With 
comparable water content, the carbo- 
hydrate varies from sixty-five to 
seventy per cent., the fat from one to 
two per cent., with the exception of 
oats which may be as high as six per 
cent. 

The flour of any one is worth in the 
neighbourhood of 1600 calories per 
pound, oatmeal being the highest. In a 
mixed diet where the cereals represent 
about one-third of the foodstuffs, the 
variations are entirely negligible, bar- 
ley being the lowest and oat-meal the 
highest in food value. When fed in a 
mixed diet to animals, these grains are 
of equal value. When animals are 
fed upon one grain alone, including 
leaves and stalks, wheat is, appar- 
ently, the poorest of the grains. In 
mineral content, they are of approx- 



52 WAR BREAD 

imately equal value. The proteins of 
all these grains are to be regarded as 
unbalanced and in equal measure, 
though this again is a question of no 
importance in a mixed diet. 

These grains are all equally digest- 
ible, for practical purposes. Rice is 
perhaps rather more digestible than 
com and oats, possibly on account of 
the lower fat content; but the degree 
of absorption of protein, fat and car- 
bohydate is practically identical in all. 
The digestibility of the different 
grains apparently holds for all ages, 
being largely an expression of proper 
cooking. Com in occasional individ- 
uals gives rise to mild attacks of hives. 
The common opinion that com and 
oats are heating is a vulgar error. 

Certain individuals would seem to 
be concerned over the propriety of re- 
duction of wheat flour in the ration of 
children and invalids, for whom 



WAR BREAD 53 

toasted wheat bread has long been 
regarded as a most appropriate cer- 
eal. 

As a matter of fact, in the dietary 
of the sick, rice and barley have long 
enjoyed a particularly high reputa- 
tion. In the compounded infant 
foods, barley is the flour commonly 
employed and not wheat; and pearl 
barley is indeed put to scarcely any 
other use than for the sick. In truth, 
the method of preparation and the 
thoroughness of the cooking are the 
essential points and not the kind of 
cereal. In the dieting of delicate 
children and invalids, variety is al- 
most as important as digestibility, and 
the wheat conservation program of the 
United States Food Administration 
places no limitation upon the use of 
wheat flour in this way. 

On the other hand, it must be clearly 
realized that most of the preference 



54 WAR BREAD 

for wheat flour is notional and not 
digestive. Certainly with adults who 
are leading their usual lives, it will 
be very rarely found that toleration 
for wheat bread co-exists with inabil- 
ity to digest the other cereals. We 
may accept it as a rule that the man 
or woman who wishes now to insist on 
the customary use of wheat flour is 
either a crank or a slacker. 

The reputation enjoyed in the Cau- 
casian world by wheat pre-eminently, 
and to a lesser extent by rye, rests 
upon the physical properties of the 
protein. Wheat contains a substance 
called gluten. Rye contains a similar 
substance to a lesser extent. We will 
regard them for the purpose of discus- 
sion as identical. Gluten is a tough, 
elastic, tenacious substance, which di- 
lates with air spaces when bread is 
raised with yeast, precisely as soap 
bubbles are formed when air is blown 



WAR BREAD 55 

into soap suds. When yeast acts in a 
dough of com, rice or oats there is no 
cohesion in the mass, there will be lit- 
tle increase in volume, and when it is 
baked the product is of granular tex- 
ture. When yeast acts in wheat-flour 
dough the mass rises, the gluten 
stretches and the entire loaf dilates. 
When the bread is baked the gluten is 
coagulated, and in this condition holds 
up the porous, airy structure of the 
bread, precisely as the white-of-egg 
holds up the structure of sponge cake. 
When surrounded by a proper crust 
so that the moisture is retained, the 
bread keeps for days its attractive 
qualities. It is easy to transport, not 
prone to decomposition, and is in 
every way a durable and, therefore, 
an attractive article of food. Rice, 
oats and com cannot be used to pre- 
pare bread of this type. They form 
cakes, biscuits, wafers or pones, like 



56 WAR BREAD 

com bread, which is not bread at all, 
breaks easily, dries out, cannot be 
transported, and must be consumed 
within a few hours after being pre- 
pared. Baked with fats and sugar, 
rice, com meal, and oatmeal can be 
used to form cakes of various kinds 
that are durable, but these are not 
bread. 

Bread is the only cereal food prod- 
uct that can be prepared on a large 
scale by commercial bakers and dis- 
tributed without containers. The glu- 
ten of wheat stands alone in its qual- 
ities in this respect. It is possible to 
bake a straight rye bread, although it 
will be soggy rather than light and 
this is rarely done, even in rye-eating 
countries. It is not possible to bake 
a straight barley bread, but it is pos- 
sible to combine it with equal parts of 
rye or wheat. On the Continent the 
customary rye breads usually contain 



WAR BREAD 57 

thirty parts of wheat, while the bread 
of the better classes contains seventy- 
parts of wheat and thirty parts of rye. 
Rarely do rye breads in the United 
States contain over thirty parts of 
rye. 

The value of the bread-grains lies, 
therefore, in the efficiency of prepar- 
ation, in the transportability of the 
product and in the keeping qualities. 
Since bread can be cut into slices it 
lends itself to convenience in house- 
hold service. 

We rarely eat bread without butter 
or fruit, yet we do not realize how the 
consumption of breads depends upon 
the materials spread upon it. The 
German people realized this depend- 
ence, on a nation-wide scale, during 
the past two years. With a very low 
fat ration and fruit and sugar scarce, 
the need of some spreading material 
was so keenly felt by the masses that 



58 WAR BREAD 

the government devised and fabricated 
a jam composed largely of turnips, 
merely to supply something that could 
be spread upon the bread. 

Races other than Caucausian have 
usually centred their nutrition around 
other cereals than wheat, notably 
around rice. The nutrition of Japan 
centres around the soya bean and 
rice; that of the Chinese around rice, 
while com has gradually forged for- 
ward in areas where it is particularly 
adapted to cultivation. 

Barley was once widely used on the 
European Continent. It was replaced 
by rye, that has gradually given way 
to wheat, though rye is still the staple 
bread of Russia, Austria, Germany 
and the Scandinavian countries. Oat- 
meal in Scotland has yielded to wheat 
within the last century. In this coun- 
try, despite the fact that our crops of 
com and oats are more readily main- 



WAR BREAD 59 

tained, the diet in North America has 
centred around wheat, though in the 
south wheat shares honours with rice 
and maize. Many elements enter into 
the choice: price, household conven- 
ience, taste, appearance, labour, fuel, 
etc. 

Bread, whether of wheat or rye, can 
be baked in public establishments and 
delivered to the house, while com, oat- 
meal and rice must be prepared in the 
home, usually for a single meal, bread 
being consumed by preference upon 
the second or third day. Another use 
of wheat is in the form of quick-rising 
biscuit, prepared with baking powder, 
which gives a hot table bread in short 
time and with little labour; though 
perhaps from the standpoint of health, 
the practice is not to be recommended, 
it has been widely adopted on account 
of ease and convenience. Wheat 
lends itself better than any other 



60 WAR BREAD 

cereal to the preparation of cakes, pas- 
tries and desserts, and is thus the flour 
of luxury even in those countries 
where rye is the bread of necessity. 

Our predilection for wheat is an ex- 
pression of our prosperity, of our de- 
sire to consume those foods that pos- 
sess the greatest attraction from the 
standpoint of appearance and taste. 
It has no physiological basis and must 
be judged in war-time for exactly what 
it is; — an expression of taste and con- 
venience rather than an expression of 
utility. 

Many Americans, on realization of 
the situation, have felt it to be their 
part to eschew the use of wheat until 
the new harvest. The large hotels of 
the country have taken the pledge to 
serve no wheat from the 1917 crop. 
To live for three months without wheat 
is not a difficult diing to do. Cer- 
tainly not in the summer months, with 



WAR BREAD 61 

our profusion of vegetables and 
fruits. If one fourth of our people 
would do this, the saving in wheat 
would provide a priceless insurance 
fund for the United States Food Ad- 
ministration. 



WAYS OF STRETCHING 
WHEAT 

WHEN the wheat flour of a nation 
runs short there are three ways 
in which adaptation may be accom- 
plished: — direct substitution, the use 
of mixed flours, and higher extraction 
of the wheat in milling. The method 
any particular people will adopt will 
be determined in part upon their pre- 
vious customs. Factors of trade and 
transportation also exert an influence, 
as well as the state of supplies in other 
foodstuffs. In the nations at war all 
three methods have been employed. 

Direct substitution ofl'ers the most 
obvious way of saving wheat. The 
average consumption of wheat flour in 
this country is 18 lbs. per person per 

62 



WAR BREAD 63 

month. The housewife arbitrarily 
reduces her purchase of flour to 6 lbs. 
per month for each member of the 
family and limits the bread, cakes, and 
desserts she prepares, and the use of 
flour in sauces and gravies, to the fixed 
amount. At the same time she in- 
creases her purchases of rice, barley, 
commeal, hominy, oatmeal and other 
cereals to fourteen pounds per month, 
and serves them instead. This is the 
most direct method of saving wheat; 
it is from many points of view the 
most satisfactory, and leads directly 
to the specified saving. Where the 
household purchases bread the house- 
wife knows that four pounds of bread 
represents three pounds of flour. All 
purchases of wheaten crackers, pies, 
pastries, cakes and like articles must, 
of course, also be counted in. From 
the standpoint of many families, it will 
represent the most satisfactory solu- 



64 WAR BREAD 

tion of the problem to use bread made 
of standard wheat flour limited to the 
specified amount, and serve the substi- 
tution cereals as separate dishes. 

In the present state of the wheat 
stocks in this country, it would prob- 
ably meet the conservation program 
of the Food Administration to have the 
purchase of flour per month limited to 
eight pounds per person; six pounds 
would be safer. To maintain the 
usual cereal intake, some fourteen 
pounds of substitution cereals would 
be required per month per person. 
There is a great deal to be said in 
favour of having normal bread, even 
though we have much less of it. How 
the housewife serves the bread and 
substitution cereals would depend 
upon the tastes of the family and tlie 
condition of her larder. She might 
elect to serve bread only at one meal 
of the day, the heavy meal, serving 



WAR BREAD 65 

substitute cereals upon the other two 
meals. She might elect to dole out a 
twenty-first part of the bread ration for 
the week with each one of the meals, 
and serve the other cereals at all 
meals. All this is immaterial, so long 
as the amount of flour purchased 
directly and indirectly is held to the 
denominated figure, six pounds. 

The practical concern to the house- 
wife lies in the preparation of the dif- 
ferent cereals. The use of large 
amounts of substitution cereals de- 
pends upon the conditions in the larder 
outside of cereals. Anglo-Saxons do 
not relish the direct consumption of 
boiled cereals. Rice is in itself quite 
tasteless and requires the presence of 
flavouring substances, such as curry, 
meats or fats; brown rice has a better 
flavour than polished rice. Oatmeal 
appeals to few people unless eaten 
with milk and sugar. The same is to 



66 WAR BREAD 

be said of commeal mush, while fried 
commeal and hominy are usually 
consumed with syrup or with meats. 
All cereals are relished with fruits. 
Fortunately for us, we possess the 
sugar, fruits, meats, fats and dairy 
products necessary to enable the house- 
wife to prepare rice, commeal, hom- 
iny, barley, oatmeal and other cereals 
in an infinite variety of ways. It is 
precisely in the possession of these 
foodstuffs, that make the use of sub- 
stitution cereals easy, that the Ameri- 
can housewife occupies the position of 
advantage over the women of the Al- 
lies, who are short of fruits, sugar, 
dairy products, meats and fats. Suc- 
cess in the use of substitution cereals 
in this country is merely a question of 
desire. The common degree of culi- 
nary skill and household ingenuity 
will enable any woman to restrict the 
consumption of flour in her family to 



WAR BREAD 67 

six pounds per person per month, and 
to serve substitution cereals in such 
ways as to evoke the satisfaction both 
of the adults and children. A bung- 
ling housewife is a pro-German influ- 
ence, in fact if not in intention. 

The direct use of substitution 
cereals is most easy to people of means 
and to those living in the country and 
in towns and small cities, since they 
have access to the adjuncts that make 
these cereals acceptable. The people 
living in the congested sections of 
large cities would find such a mode of 
subsistence onerous and expensive, 
and since they cannot be asked to carry 
out the full program, the more strict 
observance is imposed upon the rest of 
us, in whose power it lies to live on the 
least wheat, even with no wheat. 

For those who live in public eating 
houses, this method of direct substitu- 
tion is not so feasible. Oatmeal, 



68 WAR BREAD 

cornmeal, hominy and rice are often 
badly prepared and unattractively 
served in public houses. These 
cereals require thorough cooking and 
are best prepared in small amounts. 
The easy thing for public eating places 
is to serve bread with meats and veg- 
etables. Anyone who attempts to 
maintain a vegetarian or cereal diet in 
a public eating place will find the 
practice difficult. Thus the world 
over the saving of wheat is hardest in 
public eating places. The most effec- 
tive method is to prohibit the serving 
of crackers and the like and limit the 
permissible portion of bread to two 
ounces. 

The second method is the use of 
mixed flours, the dilution of wheat 
flour with other cereals. European 
nations have now accumulated expe- 
riences in the admixing of flours upon 
such a large scale that we may accept 



WAR BREAD 69 

their findings as conclusive. Stand- 
ard bread of normal characteristics 
cannot be prepared commercially with 
less than 70 parts of wheat flour, ex- 
cept in the case of rye, where a good 
half-and-half bread can be prepared. 
With barley, oatmeal, commeal, rice, 
potato and other diluting flours, 70 
parts of wheat flour are required to 30 
parts of substitution flour for the sim- 
ple reason that this is the minimum 
amount of wheat furnishing the gluten 
necessary to produce a bread of stand- 
ard characteristics. 

The best mixed-flour bread is pre- 
pared from flour of standard extrac- 
tion. For practical purposes it does 
not make much diff'erence what the di- 
luting flour is. If the substitution 
flours do not cook as rapidly as wheat 
flour, which is true of cornmeal and 
oatmeal, it is advantageous to have 
them pre-cooked. Thus, in the house- 



70 WAR BREAD 

hold, the best method of making 
mixed-flour bread of oatmeal, rice or 
corn-meal is to cook these cereals, 
mash them thoroughly and work them 
into the dough. In the case of pota- 
toes, cooking is always advantagous. 
Commercial bakers, of course, cannot 
proceed thus. They must adapt the 
processes of baking to the characteris- 
tics of the particular mixture, and 
they have learned in Europe to pro- 
duce fair breads upon a commercial 
scale. Thirty per cent, of cornmeal is 
too high; twenty should not be ex- 
ceeded. Fifty per cent, of rye, thirty 
per cent, of barley, twenty-five of rice 
and oatmeal and twenty per cent, of 
com represent proportions that can be 
employed by commercial bakers or in 
the household with perfect satisfac- 
tion. Expert housewives can use 
larger admixtures with small batches. 
Success is modified by the extrac- 



WAR BREAD 71 

tion of the diluting flours. Barley 
should be milled to 60 per cent., rye to 
70 per cent.; degerminated cornmeal 
makes the best-looking loaf, but whole 
corn meal is satisfactory. 

These breads are usually not as 
light and fine in texture as straight 
wheat breads. They do not remain 
moist quite as long; they do not toast 
as perfectly, and they may present a 
slight taste of the diluting grain. If 
barley flour is extracted to 70 per 
cent., it lends a taste to the bread con- 
taining it; if extracted to 60 per cent., 
this is not the case. Rice tends to give 
a pastry-like texture if used in large 
amounts. Cornmeal tends to give a 
granular quality to the bread contain- 
ing it. Potato bread, when made un- 
der careful supervision, is a very good 
article; but applied to commercial 
baking the bread is difficult of control. 
The writer has eaten much potato 



72 WAR BREAD 

bread in Germany, containing all the 
way from 10 to 30 per cent, of potato, 
prepared both with wheat and rye 
flour, and has seen few good breads 
turned out upon a commercial scale. 
Ten to fifteen per cent, of potato can 
be added to bread in household bak- 
ing without the slightest sign in the fin- 
ished product. 

Of course, the technique of baking 
must be modified, both in the bakery 
and in the household, in accordance 
with the particular ingredients in- 
volved. When one uses wheat flour 
to 70 per cent, of the mass, one must 
reduce the period of fermentation. It 
may be found that a slightly higher or 
lower temperature during the period 
of fermentation is advantageous. 
The baker and the housewife will find 
a higher or lower temperature in bak- 
ing advantageous to produce breads 
best adapted to the taste of the family 



WAR BREAD 73 

and the trade. Here again success 
depends upon desire. The baker who 
wants to turn out a mixed bread con- 
taining eighty or even seventy parts of 
wheat flour, such as the present stand- 
ard flour of this country, and twenty 
or thirty parts of diluting flours can 
produce bread of normal appearances 
and standard qualities. 

Mixed-flour bread represents the 
best method of stretching wheat in the 
subsistence of the inhabitants of the 
congested area of our large cities, in- 
deed for the very poor it may be the 
only practicable method. 

Recent additions to the list of wheat- 
flour substitutes are flours of peanut, 
banana, sweet potato, sorghum grains 
and others. These are good products, 
but they find their best use not in 
yeast-risen breads but rather in quick 
breads, cakes and similar prepar- 
ations. 



74 WAR BREAD 

The third method is higher extrac- 
tion of flour. By extraction, ex- 
pressed in percentage, we mean weight 
of flour obtained from the unit weight 
of cleaned grains. The pre-war ex- 
traction in this country was 70 to 72 
per cent.; that is, one hundred weight 
of cleaned wheat produced seventy or 
seventy-two pounds of flour in total. 
This flour was contained in several 
trade grades. The finest patent flour 
represented about 56 per cent, extrac- 
tion. Then there were bakers' patents 
and straight flours. The sum of these 
equaled 70-72 per cent. We have 
abolished these gradings of flour and 
our mills now produce a standard flour 
of uniform extraction, practically 75 
per cent, upon the American scale. 
In order to understand the advantages 
and disadvantages of higher milling, 
it is necessary to enter a little into the 



WAR BREAD 75 

structure of wheat and the processes 
of milling. 

Wheat is composed of three parts; 
the endosperm, which is the main body 
of the berry; the germ; the hull or 
coating. Our standard wheat flour 
contains only the endosperm and rep- 
resents practically a 75 per cent, ex- 
traction. The remaining 25 per cent, 
is known in the trade as grain offal or 
mill-feed, and is used largely as a con- 
centrated food for live stock, being 
prized in the feeding of dairy cattle. 
This fraction of grain offal contains a 
number of over-lapping sub-fractions, 
which are known in the trade as red- 
dog, shorts, middlings, and bran. A 
portion of the red-dog is contained in 
the lowest grade of straight flour. It 
is possible to separate roughly the 
grain offal into two parts ; one contain- 
ing the germ and the finer offal, and 



76 WAR BREAD 

the other containing the coarser offals, 
largely bran. In comparing Ameri- 
can and European extractions, the 
water content of flours must be kept in 
mind. Here the flour contains about 
13 per cent, of water, in Europe 
higher water content is permitted, 17 
per cent, being common. In other 
words, our 75 per cent, extraction cor- 
responds to a 78 per cent, extraction in 
Europe. , 

Standard wheat can be extracted to 
about 78 per cent, without inclusion 
of the germ, but with inclusion of 
some of the red-dog. The germ frac- 
tion will be found in the next 10 per 
cent., the material between the 78 per 
cent, and 88 per cent. The germ it- 
self is probably not over 2 per cent, 
of the weight of the grain, but in the 
practice of milling it is found in the 
upper fraction of red-dog, shorts, and 
in the finer grain off'al. This middle 



WAR BREAD 77 

fraction, (which we may term the 
germ fraction, denominating the 
coarser grain offal as the bran frac- 
tion), is as rich in carbohydrate as 
straight flour and is appreciably richer 
in protein. From the standpoint of 
nutritive units, either expressed in 
analysis or in physiological tests, there 
is gain when wheat is milled to 88 per 
cent, as compared to 78 per cent., this 
gain being especially in the direction 
of protein. 

The nutritive content of the bran 
fraction, that is above 88 per cent., is 
low. It is largely cellulose and min- 
eral matter. The germ contains both 
ferments and bacteria, and is, there- 
fore, prone to decomposition. The 
ferments split the fats, making them 
rancid. They act upon the protein 
also. Aided by bacteria, they pro- 
duce the musty decomposition that is 
liable to occur in coarse flours, and 



78 WAR BREAD 

does not occur in standard flours under 
the same circumstances. Flours ex- 
tracted to 88 per cent., that is, contain- 
ing the endosperm and the germ frac- 
tion, do not keep in the same way that 
the standard flours keep. They pos- 
sess a distinctly diff'erent taste, and 
breads made from them carry this 
taste, — a taste that is not unpleasant. 
Flours extracted to 85-88 per cent, 
have, for practical purposes, come into 
common use only during this war. 
Before the war in Europe and in this 
country, we had patent, bakers patent, 
straight flour and so-called graham 
and whole wheat flours. Graham 
flour is supposed to contain the entire 
wheat berry. Whole wheat flour is 
supposed to be produced after decorti- 
cation of the berry. In actual prac- 
tice, there is very little of such flours 
produced in the United States. What 
is sold for graham and whole wheat 



WAR BREAD 79 

flour is standard flour into which the 
bran fraction has been sifted back; it 
does not contain the germ fraction, i.e., 
it is degerminated. In other words, it 
does not possess the nutrients of the 
germ fraction, but is merely standard 
flour to which the roughage of the bran 
fraction has been added. Graham 
flour prepared by sifting bran back 
into standard flour keeps fairly well. 
The true graham flour keeps badly on 
account of the tendency of the germ 
to decompose. It is possible on a 
small scale to sterilize whole wheat 
flour, but this has never been at- 
tempted upon a large commercial 
basis. 

Now it is clear that the nutrients 
could be increased, that is, wheat flour 
stretched, by raising the extraction 
from our present figure of 75 per cent, 
to 88 per cent. Whether it would be 
wise to do this depends upon the an- 



80 WAR BREAD 

swers to three questions. Will the 
flour keep under the conditions in 
which flour is used in the United 
States? Are the breads prepared 
from higher extraction flours satisfac- 
tory? Do these breads agree with the 
digestion of the consumer? 

As regards the first question, it 
would certainly lead to losses if all the 
wheat in America were milled either 
to European standard of 85 per cent, 
or 88 per cent., or prepared as whole 
wheat flour and distributed through 
the American market as at present con- 
trolled. It is possible in Europe to 
mill wheat in their way because the 
flour is consumed within a few weeks 
after it is produced. In Europe there 
is practically no such thing as house- 
hold baking, and flour is consumed 
promptly after leaving the mills. 
Here sixty per cent, of the people bake 
their own bread, half of our flour en- 



WAR BREAD 81 

ters the household larder, different 
classes buy flour in large amounts, it 
must keep for months under difficult 
conditions of temperature and mois- 
ture. The common experience with 
whole wheat flour is that it spoils rap- 
idly, even in the hands of the trade; 
and this is one reason why whole wheat 
flours are expensive. Unless some 
control could be devised whereby the 
consumption of flour would occur 
within a few weeks of production, we 
may be sure that to include the germ 
fraction in the flour would lead to 
heavy losses. These losses would 
cause grave dissatisfaction, and would 
probably more than balance the in- 
crease in the amount of flour gained 
through higher extraction. To pre- 
pare all of our flour in the state of 
our present graham flour, merely sift 
back the bran into standard flour, 
would for practical purposes only add 



82 WAR BREAD 

roughage and would not contribute to 
nutritive value. The additional nu- 
trient lies in the finer ofFal, where, un- 
fortunately, also resides the tendency 
to decomposition. 

The writer has tested several whole 
wheat flours made by small mills that 
employ cutting or crushing rather than 
rolling. These flours yield very good 
breads, better than any made from or- 
dinary whole wheat flours. In a cer- 
tain sense, these whole wheat flours 
bear the same relation to the common 
whole wheat flours that water-ground 
commeal bears to the common meal. 
Like water-ground commeal, unfortu- 
nately, these special whole wheat 
flours cannot be produced upon a large 
scale. 

Breads made from flours containing 
the endosperm and the germ fraction 
are not usually good breads. The 
writer has eaten breads baked from 



WAR BREAD 83 

flours of 81, 85, 88, 93 and 97 per 
cent, extraction in Germany, England 
and France. European bakers have 
worked for over two years to produce 
good breads from these flours. It has 
not been routinely accomplished in any 
country. The methods of bread bak- 
ing are very diff'erent in France, Italy, 
Germany and England. The stand- 
ards of what constitutes good bread 
and the tastes of the public are differ- 
ent. In not one of these countries 
have the bakers been able to meet the 
tastes of the consuming classes with 
breads made from flours containing 
the endosperm and the germ fraction. 
The loaf is smaller, the moisture con- 
tent higher, often tending to sogginess, 
does not crust well, does not toast well, 
and remains, when all is said and 
done, an unsatisfactory bread. The 
revulsion against this bread has been 
audible in every country, the people 



84 WAR BREAD 

have repeatedly petitioned that they be 
given less bread and better bread. 
France once reduced her extraction 
fiwe per cent, in order to meet the 
wishes of the people. In every coun- 
try they furnish to soldiers bread 
made of lower extraction flour than the 
standard issued for the civilian 
classes. The graham bread made in 
this country from flour produced by 
sifting bran back into standard flour 
is much better than the average war- 
bread of Europe, produced from an 

85 per cent, extraction that contains 
the germ but does not contain the 
bran. The presence of bran seems to 
aid in holding up the texture of the 
bread and making it lighter. True 
whole-wheat bread is lighter and bet- 
ter than the war-bread of Europe made 
from 81-88 per cent, extraction. 

It has been the experience in the 
European countries that breads pre- 



WAR BREAD 85 

pared from higher extraction flours do 
not agree with many individuals. 
This holds as true of breads made 
from the 85 per cent, extraction as 
from the 93 per cent, extraction. 
Many children and adults fail to di- 
gest these breads. The result is dis- 
comfort and often colic, gaseous fer- 
mentation, and resultant disturbances 
of intestinal functions. It is not 
merely the result of increased rough- 
age in the diet. Graham breads made 
of flour produced by adding bran to 
standard flour do not disagree with 
people in this country in the way that 
the 85 per cent, extraction breads of 
Europe disagree with people there. 
The disagreement lies apparently less 
in the bran fraction than in the germ 
fraction, or in the resultant changes 
in the bread that the germ fraction in- 
troduces. The disturbances are usu- 
ally not serious, except in children, 



86 WAR BREAD 

but they accentuate the dissatisfaction 
with the breads. If a bread does not 
look like good bread, keep like good 
bread or taste like good bread, and in 
addition does not agree as does good 
bread, the sentiment of the people 
turns against it, and higher extrac- 
tion can be justifiable only on the 
ground of dire necessity. It is the 
experience of the nations at war in 
Europe that they would abandon 
higher extraction and return to mixed 
flours prepared from standard flour, 
provided this were possible. Breads 
made in England of standard Amer- 
ican flour diluted with an admixing 
flour are much better than straight 
breads of 85 per cent, extraction 
flour. The Victory Bread of the 
United States is so superior to the war- 
bread of the Allies and of the enemies 
as to be past comparison. Not only 
is the quality of Victory Bread ex- 



WAR BREAD 87 

cellent, but it contains more calories 
to the pound than straight wheat bread. 
One plea in favour of whole wheat 
flour frequently advanced is that it 
contains vitamines and mineral mat- 
ters that are not contained in standard 
flour. This is true. There are no 
studies to indicate the richness of the 
middle or germ fraction in vitamine 
and mineral matters. One might in- 
fer that the vitamine is contained in 
the germ fraction and that the mineral 
matters are contained largely in the 
bran fraction, but this is an inference 
and not a statement of analysis or ex- 
periment. When the diet lacks min- 
erals, roughage and vitamines, then 
the use of whole grains is necessary. 
But, it is precisely in war-time that 
this is not likely to occur. In the diet 
of the nations at war there is a pro- 
fusion of vegetables, more than in 
peace-time, that contain mineralsp 



88 WAR BREAD 

roughage and vitamines freely. Go 
where one will, in the United King- 
dom, France, Germany, Switzerland 
or Holland, one finds the diet of the 
people today rougher, coarser, and 
containing more vegetables and less 
concentrated foodstuffs than in peace- 
time. As a people adapt themselves 
more and more to the exigencies of 
war-time stress, they turn to coarser 
plants, the diet becomes more vege- 
tarian. With our war gardens of last 
year our people consumed vegetables 
in excess of previous custom and that 
will be the case again this year. 
Vitamines and mineral matters are not 
contained in the covering of the grains 
in a particular or exclusive manner. 
All fruits and vegetables contain 
water-soluble vitamines. Milk and 
beef and leaf vegetables are rich in 
fat-soluble vitamines, in which the 
grains are poor. We must develop 



WAR BREAD 89 

the use of dairy products in order to 
conserve the invaluable fat-soluble 
vitamines which the grains cannot give 
us. Under these circumstances, the 
plea for whole-wheat flour in the 
American diet today fails of justifica- 
tion from this point of view. People 
should be allowed to select their 
roughage, whether in the form of 
fruits or vegetables or in the form of 
whole grains. They should be al- 
lowed to select their mineral salts and 
vitamines in the same manner, and 
both are freely available. The legal 
distinction between food conservation 
and health propaganda must be kept 
in mind. It is argued in favour of 
whole wheat flour that its use might 
relieve or prevent constipation, rick- 
ets, scurvy, anaemia, and pellagra. 
But the function of a food administra- 
tion is to secure and conserve food, 
not treat pre-existing diseases in a 



90 WAR BREAD 

compulsory manner, applied to the 
majority who are not afflicted as well 
as to the minority who may be dis- 
eased but still possess the right to 
select their treatment. In each coun- 
try at war diet fads are being pushed 
at the food administrations, who must 
confine themselves to the specific func- 
tions defined by legislative authoriza- 
tion. 

Nutrient units are to be gained, as 
a war-time proposition in Europe, in 
flours of whole wheat. It is possible 
that we could extract our grain some- 
what higher, 78-80 per cent., without 
loss of flour through decomposition. 
But the idea of milling all our wheat 
as whole-wheat flour cannot be com- 
mended from any point of view, as a 
war-time proposition applied to the 
American people. There is an abun- 
dant production of whole wheat flour 
for those who desire it. Mixed-flour 



WAR BREAD 91 

breads and the use of supplementary 
cereals in substitution of bread repre- 
sent for the average American the best 
solution of the problem of stretching 
our scanty supplies of wheat. 

When a people possesses very 
limited supplies of bread grains, it 
may find itself driven to stretchings 
that are largely or wholely dimen- 
sional and not nutritive. That has 
been the situation of the German peo- 
ple several times during the past two 
years. Very short of wheat, rye and 
barley, and having no oats, corn, rice 
or other cereals that could be sub- 
stituted, certain classes in Germany 
have fallen back upon such diluents 
as birch buds, straw, clover hay and 
wood pulp. The birch buds and 
clover hay offer a limited amount of 
nutrients to the human digestion, the 
straw and wood offers none, as care- 
ful tests in Germany have demon- 



92 WAR BREAD 

strated. Nevertheless cellulose bread, 
as it has been termed, is still recom- 
mended, since it enlarges the size of 
the loaf and acts as filling for the di- 
gestive tract. Alfalfa flour mixed 
with wheat flour makes a good bread ; 
it is indeed an open question whether, 
from the standpoint of constituents, 
flour of ordinary flour plus alfalfa 
would not be esteemed superior to 
whole wheat flour. Feeds can of 
course be used as foods; but with our 
supplies of oats, barley, rice and corn, 
to say nothing of white and sweet 
potato and peanut, we are driven to 
no such alternative, even should our 
supplies of wheat and rye unhappily 
continue low through another year. 

Whatever the state of our stocks of 
wheat, our stock of courage must re- 
main high. 



WASTE IN WHEAT 

THERE is a considerable waste in 
bread-grains, although it is not 
capable of accurate measurement, 
both in the industrial use of flour and 
in subsistence. There is a consider- 
able feeding of wheat to poultry and 
other domesticated animals, and it is 
not all screenings by any manner of 
means. Wheat flour is used in cer- 
tain textile processes, in pastes, in 
foundries and in a variety of minor 
industrial operations. The wheat 
flour thus used is supposed to be made 
of wheat of low grade, or flour con- 
demned for purposes of human food. 
As a matter of fact, a considerable 
amount of straight flour has been de- 
voted to these ends. 

93 



94 WAR BREAD 

There is, apparently, little waste of 
flour in the commercial baking of 
bread, but there is a considerable 
waste in connection with marketing. 
It has been the custom of bakers to 
supply retailers with amounts of bread 
in excess of their usual trade in order 
that they should never run short, just 
as in the case of newspapers. The 
unsold bread the retailer was per- 
mitted to return. The old bread was 
thereupon sold by the baker at lower 
prices to the poor in cities, or was sold 
for animal consumption. This waste, 
which was not inconsiderable, repre- 
sented merely an economic conveni- 
ence, and under the present regula- 
tions of the Food Administration bak- 
ers accept no bread returns. Any- 
thing that makes the baker judge his 
trade more accurately tends to reduce 
the consumption of bread but it tends 



WAR BREAD 95 

also to increase slightly the cost to the 
baker. 

In the actual baking operations, 
there is very little waste in commercial 
bakeries. Their formulas are well 
worked out, the amounts of ingredi- 
ents accurately standardized, the tem- 
perature is regulated, the period of 
fermentation under control, the heat of 
the ovens is properly maintained and 
very few batches go wrong. In an 
attempt to produce new breads, such 
as Victory Bread, bakers may en- 
counter losses for a few days; but with 
the use of standard flour 75 parts and 
substitution 25 parts, or even with a 
combination of seventy and thirty, 
bakers should produce bread of good 
quality without loss. 

There is some waste in the use of 
flour in baking in the home. If the 
family does not contain many hard 



96 WAR BREAD 

workers, the tendency is to prepare a 
larger batch of bread than can be con- 
sumed in the time that bread will re- 
main fresh, and unless ingenuity on 
the part of the housewife in the utiliza- 
tion of stale bread is highly developed, 
a great deal of stale bread goes to 
dogs, cats and poultry, and into the 
garbage pail. All investigations of 
garbage in cities indicates that there 
has been a considerable waste in stale 
bread. This was also true in the can- 
tonments in the early months of the 
war, and represents a type of waste 
to which we as a people had become 
accustomed. By a check-up in waste 
bread, and by the issue of flour only 
as it is needed, the flour consumption 
of the cantonments during the past 
three months has been reduced over 
one-half from the figure of issue to 
the regular Army for 1913. This il- 
lustrates how much can be accom- 



WAR BREAD 97 

plished through far-sighted conserva- 
tion. Where flour is used for quick 
breads, as in the preparation of baking 
powder biscuits, hot cakes, etc., if 
these are not consumed at the time of 
baking, they are often not eaten at 
all ; and unless baking of these articles 
is restricted to the actual amount 
needed, there is waste of flour. 

Household waste of flour is a matter 
that is directly and solely up to the 
housewife. If she will control her 
purchases of flour, carefully gauge 
all preparation in proportion to the 
number in the family and the work 
they are doing, and make it a rule 
that any product of flour is not to be 
thrown away or fed to animals under 
any circumstances, the waste of flour 
in the household will be practically 
eliminated. The crucial feature of 
control lies in limitation of purchase. 
If the housewife buys not more than 



98 WAR BREAD 

six pounds of flour per person per 
month, directly and indirectly, she 
forces herself to face the alternative 
of waste or use up to this figure; then 
it will be found that waste will be 
eliminated and the flour will be con- 
sumed. 

• • • • • 

Every American has been asked to 
buy a war bond. Every American is 
now asked to save wheat. To buy a 
bond is an investment, to save wheat is 
a duty as well as a task, our first war 
burden. Our people must solve this 
problem. We must solve it, because 
the subsistence of our Allies depends 
upon the solution. We must solve it 
because our own subsistence would 
be jeopardized by failure. But even 
wider considerations make success of 
crucial importance. Morale is in- 
volved. The morale of our Allies 
will be raised by our success or low- 



WAR BREAD 99 

ered by our failure, they will inter- 
pret our war spirit in the light of our 
reaction to this problem. Our morale 
will be raised by success in this under- 
taking or lowered by failure, because 
we will judge ourselves by the out- 
come. With sound native spirit, con- 
scious of the justness of our cause, 
in the impelling ardour of youth but 
without definition by the individual of 
the things that make for warfare, we 
are driving forward. Success in the 
first steps means much, like a good 
start in a race. We must save in 
many things in this war, let us get into 
the saving stride now. In facing the 
first definite act of reconstruction of 
our lives as a step in warfare, each 
stands before the bar of individual 
conscience. 

By their bread shall ye know them! 

PBINTBD IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



'T'HE following pages contain advertisements 
of books by the same author or on kindred 
subjects. 



The Food Problem 

By VERNON KELLOGG AND ALONZO E. 

TAYLOR $1.25 

" Food is always more or less of a problem in 
every phase of its production, handling and consump- 
tion. It is a problem with every farmer, every trans- 
porter and seller, every householder. It is a problem 
with every town, state and nation. And now very 
conspicuously, it is a. problem with three great 
groups, namely the Allies, The Central Empires and 
rhe Neutrals; in a word it is a great international 
problem." 

These sentences from the introduction indicate the 
scope of The Food Problem by Vernon Kellogg and 
Alonzo E. Taylor. 

Both authors are members of the United States 
Food Administration. Dr. Kellogg is also connected 
with the Commission for relief in Belgium and pro- 
fessor in Stanford University. Mr. Taylor is a mem- 
ber of the Exports Administrative Board and pro- 
fessor in the University of Pennsylvania. The pre- 
face is by Herbert Hoover, United States Food 
Administrator and Chairman for the Commission of 
Relief in Belgium. 

The food problem of today, of our nation, there- 
fore, has as its most conspicuous phase an interna- 
tional character. Some of the questions which the 
book considers are: 

What is the Problem in detail? 

What are the general conditions of its solution? 

What are the immediate and particulars which con- 
cern us, and are within our power to affect? 

And finally, what are we actually doing to meet our 
problem? 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Introduction: The International Problem. 
Part I. The Problem and the Solution. 
Chapter I. The Food Situation of the Western Al- 
lies and the United States. 
II. Food Administration. 

III, How England, France and Italy are 

Controlling and Saving Food. 

IV. Food Control in Germany and Its Les- 

sons. 
Part II. The Technology of Food Use. 
Chapter V. The Physiology of Nutrition. 
VI. The Sociology of Nutrition. 
VII. The Sociology of Nutrition (Con- 
tinued). 
Vin. Grain and Alcohol. 
Conclusion: Patriotism and Food. 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



SOME ASPECTS OF FOOD ECONOMY 

By MARY S. ROSE 

Everyday Foods in War Time 

$.80 

This little book was written in response to a re- 
quest for a " war message about food." It gives a 
simple explanation of the part which some of our 
common foods play in our diet, and points out how 
the necessary saving of fat, fuel, sugar, and meat 
can be made without a loss of health or strength. 

There are chapters on the Milk Pitcher in the 
Home; Cereals We Ought to Eat; Meats We Ought 
to Save; The Potato and Its Substitutes; Are Fruits 
and Vegetables Luxuries? Sugar and Spice and 
Everything Nice; On Being Economical and Pa- 
triotic at the Same Time. 



Feeding the Family 

$2.10 

This is a clear concise account in simple everyday 
terms of the ways in which modern knowledge of the 
science of nutrition may be applied in ordinary life. 
The food needs of the members of the typical family 
group — men, women, infants, children of various 
ages — are discussed in separate chapters, and many 
illustrations in the form of food plans and dietaries 
are included. The problems of the housewife in try- 
ing to reconcile the needs of different ages and tastes 
at the same table are also taken up, as are the cost 
of food and the construction of menus. A final chap- 
ter deals with feeding the sick. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenne New York 



The Book of Cheese 



By CHARLES THOM 

Mycologist in charge of Microbiological Laboratory, 

Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of 

Agriculture; formerly Investigator in Cheese 

at Connecticut Agricultural College 

AND 

WALTER W. FISK 

Assistant Professor of Dairy Industry, New York 
State College of Agriculture at Cornell University 

An exposition of the processes of making and han- 
dling a series of important varieties of cheese. The 
kinds considered are those made commercially in 
America or widely met in the trade here. The re- 
lation of cheese to milk and to its production and 
composition has been presented in so far as required 
for this purpose. 

After a general statement on cheese, the authors 
consider the following subjects: The milk in its re- 
lation to cheese; Coagulating materials; Lactic start- 
ers; Curd making; Classification of cheese; Cheese 
with sour milk flavor; Soft cheeses ripened by mold; 
Soft cheeses ripened by bacteria; Semi-hard cheeses; 
The hard cheeses; Cheddar cheese making; Compo- 
sition and yield of Cheddar cheese; Cheddar cheese 
ripening; The Swiss and Italian groups; Miscellaneous 
varieties and by-products; Cheese factory construc- 
tion, equipment, organization; History and develop- 
ment of the cheese industry in America; Testing; 
Marketing; Cheese in the household. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



THE RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES 

Edited by L. H. Bailey 

Butter 

By E. S. GUTHRIE 

i'rofessor in the Dairy Department, New York State 
College of Agriculture, Cornell University 

A practical discussion of the general char- 
acteristics of butter, and of all of the problems 
connected with its manufacture and marketing, 
together with a brief history of the product. 
Among the topics considered are the history 
of butter; composition and food value of but- 
ter ; cleansing and care of dairy utensils ; care 
of milk and cream ; cream separation ; grading 
milk and cream and neutralizing acidity ; pas- 
teurization; cream ripening; churning, wash- 
ing, salting and packing butter; flavors of 
butter; storage of butter; marketing; whey 
butter, renovated and ladled butter ; margarine, 
and testing. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Pifth Avenue New York 








•1°<. 




o w o 












V '^ x^ 











%,^^ 
















^^-^^^^ 








t 'S'l^V^^ 









